Kashmir, a contested region between Pakistan, India and China?

Usually, in one of the first lessons of an ‘International Relations’ course, the theoretical differences between State and Nation are discussed.  The latter is often described as an ethnic-cultural group that lacks the defining attributes of a State, such as a structured political organization and sovereignty. However, unilaterally imposed borders by colonial powers, historically rooted claims and interests of various kinds determine the fact that sometimes these conditions cannot assert themselves, along with the identity and freedom of various populations.  To this day, there are still several regions in the world that are still unrecognised as autonomous and independent, at the heart of violent territorial disputes that lead to daily human rights violations as well as ongoing political and military conflicts that last for decades. Kashmir is one these, and one of the most militarised areas in the world.

To understand the history of Kashmir, one needs to step back in time to 1846. At that time, Kashmir was part of what was called the ‘Himalayan kingdom’ and was used during the British Empire in India as a strategic buffer zone with the Russian and Chinese empires. It was a region with a majority of people of Muslim faith, but that lived for centuries side by side with Hindu or Sikh people belonging to different ethnic groups developed their own distinct social, cultural and political identity over time.

Another important date is 1947, the year in which India gained independence from Britain, Pakistan – the ‘land of the Muslim people of India’ – was born, and the expansionist aims of both states began, which claimed and still claim full sovereignty over Kashmir. When in 1947, the ruling Maharaja of Kashmir decided to cede part of its sovereignty to India, violent protests and border clashes began, escalating into outright war with Pakistan’s entry into the conflict. Thousands were killed, and the region was divided into two areas: one controlled by Pakistan, known as Azad Kashmir, and the other by India, called Jammu and Kashmir.

But in the 1950s, another neighbouring state began its expansionist aims in the region, China. It expanded into the Aksai Chin region, a mountainous and largely uninhabited area but rich in strategic passes connecting Tibet and the Chinese region of Xinjiang by military roads. In 1962, there was the first Sino-Indian war that ended with unresolved border disputes and China’s control over the area. India still claims sovereignty over it today. 

Another major conflict followed in 1965 and it was Pakistan to attack. The conflict was bitter and ended with the defeat of Pakistan and the return to the so-called ‘line of control’ that divides the two regions and is not an internationally recognised border. Both states started to finance a border guerrilla war in their respective regions. Tensions never completely died down until the ‘Kargil War’ of 1999 and continued thereafter. Continuous violations of each other’s territory also determined the souring of relations between Hindu and Muslim people as the two states started to make it as an ethno-nationalist and religious issue. The only option demanded and claimed by the Kashmiri people has never been considered by either side: independence.

What’s the situation today? The sovereignty of both states is continually contested from above and challenged from below, by a population now weary of enduring daily violence and rights violations by both armies. Over time, resistance and rebellion movements have sprung up, differing according to the side of the border.

In Jammu and Kashmir in 2008 there was an apparent easing of relations with the opening of a trade route, the first time in 60 years, but thereafter protests escalated and there were several moments of high crisis. In those years there was a real armed struggle, the Indian government imposed curfews, and violence erupted against civilians. In addition, it was only in 2019 that the Indian government cancelled Article 370 of the constitution that granted the region the status of an autonomous one with the possibility to legislate independently. The anger towards the Indian government increased exponentially and this exacerbated the measures. The press was restricted and the work of journalists could be examined by government officials. According to Amnesty International, repression was high against journalists and human rights activists, and actions like travel bans, revocation of passports and arbitrary detention of Kashmiri people even in remote Indian prisons took place. The Indian army began to enjoy more and more powers. In 2024, the first free elections in ten years were called, the turnout was high and aimed at preventing the prevalence of Indian nationalist parties and demanding solutions to problems that were certainly not being addressed such as high unemployment, drug use and the high price of flour and electricity.

In Azad Kashmir, the area under Pakistani control, the population is subject to laws restricting freedom of expression. The media need official permission to operate and official reports do not deviate from the Pakistani view according to which the inhabitants of the whole Kashmir would like to join Pakistan. Many newspapers have no Internet presence, publications are sporadic and no foreign media can operate in the region without prior permission from Pakistan. Protests are also at the order of the day on this side of the border, along with repression by paramilitary forces. However, the claims are not only political. The population is claiming subsidies for flour and electricity, the costs of which have risen mainly due to the wheat crisis of May 2023. They ask the government to reduce lavish spending on officials, and better financial integration with the rest of Pakistan. The government seems to have agreed to the demands, except for the reduction of electricity prices, although according to the people this should not have a cost as it is produced locally, through the Mangla Dam. To peaceful demonstrations, the government responded with violence by deploying an increasing number of paramilitary forces. There were violent clashes and multiple arrests. Throughout this phase, a partial suspension of the internet was imposed in some regions. People started to use social media to spread information and condemn the government from the pulpits of mosques.

In Aksai Chin, Indian people are not allowed and it is an off-limits area for tourism. However, it is also a mineral-rich area and one of the largest metal deposit areas in Asia, and there are considerable reserves of high-quality zinc and lead. China and Pakistan have strong military ties that aim to counter Indian and American regional influence, and China supports their sovereignty and territorial integrity. Border skirmishes are repeated and reports of Chinese incursions into Indian territory are frequent.

All these political dynamics result in the fact that, on both sides, there is no real investment to protect the population in infrastructure, education or the health system, and the unemployment rate in the regions is very high. 

Media reporting on Kashmir on both sides is deeply politicised and reflects the tension between the two countries. The media in Jammu and Kashmir are generally divided between pro- and anti-secessionists, local journalists3 work under strict curfews and face threats from militant groups. Internet access is sporadic and messaging services are regularly blocked. In Azad Kashmir, the media are mainly used for propaganda purposes, mainly to highlight alleged human rights violations on the other side.

In the meantime, the population continues to pay the price, disappearances, arrests and torture of those who oppose it are the order of the day, but, although marginalised and silenced by decades of violence, Kashmiri identity still exists and continues to endure.